St. Maarten History: 1863

On July 1, 1863, when the Dutch Kingdom officially proclaimed emancipation on Sint Maarten, liberty arrived through a cold ledger of debits and credits. The newly freed men, women, and children stepped into legal personhood with empty hands, while the colonial administration painstakingly calculated cash payouts for the men and women who had held them in bondage.

Preserved in the yellowed schedules of the Dutch National Archives, these records do not just document the end of an era. They capture the precise unfeeling financial machinery of colonial power, laying bare how an entire society placed a price tag of thirty guilders on human freedom and left an imprint on the island that still resonates today.

When the Dutch Emancipation Act took effect on July 1, 1863, it brought a legal end to generations of chattel slavery on the Dutch side of Sint Maarten. The transition was documented through bureaucratic records known as borderellen (claim schedules), preserved today in the Dutch National Archives (Nationaal Archief).

These ledgers reveal a fundamental aspect of colonial emancipation: freedom for the enslaved came with no direct financial restitution, while former slaveholders received government compensation for the loss of their legal "property."

The Process of Compensation (1862 to 1864)

The legal process unfolded in several structured phases across the island:

• November 1862 Declarations: Following the proclamation of the Emancipation Act on Sint Maarten on October 24, 1862, slaveholders submitted self-reported lists specifying the names, ages, occupations, and religions of the individuals they claimed.

• June to July 1863 Verification: Local commissions verified these lists district by district across Philipsburg, Cul de Sac, Cole Bay, and Prince's Quarter. Officials deducted claims for persons who were missing or who had severe chronic illnesses like leprosy or elephantiasis.

• Late 1864 Payouts: The Dutch state finalized payments at a fixed rate of 30 Dutch guilders (ƒ 30) per verified individual. In total, ƒ 56,340 was paid out for 1,878 verified people, out of 2,145 initially claimed.

Key Archival Insights

The documents preserve critical sociological and historical details about nineteenth century Sint Maarten:

• Erasure of Family Names: Maria Kolff-Fahlberg noted on claim 46 that her workers had "No family names – since they had no civil rights – and changed their names with their various owners."

• Regional Migration: Claim 7 includes a registry of formerly enslaved people who had already migrated to Guadeloupe with their former owner's consent by June 1863.

• Concentration of Ownership: A small group of prominent families (such as Rink Tielenius Kruythoff, Nisbet, Richardson, Petersen, Romney, and Percival) accounted for the vast majority of the enslaved population on large estates in Cul de Sac and Prince's Quarter.

Complete Register of Slaveholders and Compensation (1863)

The following table presents the complete transcription of the borderellen records for the Dutch side of Sint Maarten.

Complete Register of Slaveholders and Compensation (1863) - i want to post an educational .

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Based on the totals recorded in the 1862–1863 borderellen document for Sint Maarten:

• Enslaved Men: 983

• Enslaved Women: 1,158

• Unspecified (Gender not broken down in the initial claim): 109

In total, 2,145 individuals were claimed in the initial declarations, of which 1,878 were ultimately verified for compensation payout.

The demographic imbalance on Sint Maarten (1,158 women compared to 983 men) reflects several interconnected economic, historical, and geographic realities of the nineteenth-century Caribbean:

• The 1848 French Emancipation and Male Flight: When France abolished slavery in 1848 on the northern half of the island (Saint-Martin), hundreds of enslaved people on the Dutch side escaped across the border to claim freedom. Young, able-bodied men disproportionately attempted this physical escape or took to the sea, as men had greater mobility and fewer immediate child-rearing constraints that made fleeing with dependents difficult.

• Maritime Labor and Regional Out-Migration: Enslaved men from the Dutch Windward Islands were frequently hired out as sailors, boatmen, salt workers, or contract laborers across neighboring British and Danish islands (such as St. Thomas, Anguilla, and St. Kitts), or they escaped by boat. As noted in the ledger annotations, many men were marked as absent or residing elsewhere by 1862–1863.

• Cessation of the Transatlantic Slave Trade: While the transatlantic slave trade originally imported a heavy majority of men, the legal abolition of the transatlantic trade in 1814 meant that by 1863, the enslaved population of Sint Maarten was entirely locally born (creolized). In established, self-reproducing populations without continuous African imports, natural birth ratios and higher male mortality naturally leveled and often inverted the sex ratio.

• Higher Male Mortality Rates: Enslaved men were subjected to the heaviest manual labor, including hazardous deep-water salt picking in the Great Salt Pond and heavy mill operations, leading to lower life expectancies and higher early mortality rates compared to women.

• Domestic and Urban Labor Patterns in Philipsburg: A significant portion of the town based slaveholders in Philipsburg held small numbers of domestic workers, seamstresses, cooks, and house servants, roles that enslavers almost exclusively assigned to women and girls.

 The Major Estates and Claimants of 1863

While dozens of town residents in Philipsburg claimed between one and five enslaved domestic workers, the vast majority of enslaved labor on Dutch Sint Maarten was concentrated in the hands of a small agricultural elite in the fertile valleys of Cul de Sac, Prince's Quarter, and Cole Bay.

The Tielenius Kruythoff Estate - Cul de Sac

• Claimant: Judith Rink Tielenius Kruythoff (Borderel 83)

• Enslaved People Claimed: 220 (204 verified)

• Total Compensation: ƒ 6,120

• Historical Context: Representing the single largest individual claim on the island, the Tielenius Kruythoff holdings formed the agricultural heart of the Cul de Sac valley (historically connected to properties like the Industry and Golden Rock estates). The family maintained deep genealogical ties with the island's governing merchant class.

The Nisbet Plantations - Prince's Quarter

• Claimant: David Nisbet (Borderel 55)

• Enslaved People Claimed: 155 (142 verified)

• Total Compensation: ƒ 4,260

• Historical Context: Operating in the rolling hills of Prince's Quarter, the Nisbet family managed major sugar and livestock production. David Nisbet's estate made up nearly a quarter of all enslaved laborers registered in Prince's Quarter.

The Richardson Dynasty - Cul de Sac and Philipsburg

• Claimants: John Edney Richardson (Borderel 73), Ann Louisa Richardson (Borderel 71), Richard Robinson Richardson (Borderel 74), and others

• Total Verified Enslaved People: 223 across multiple schedules

• Combined Compensation: Over ƒ 6,600

• Historical Context: The Richardson family held extensive acreage spanning Cul de Sac and prominent properties in Philipsburg. John Edney Richardson alone verified 113 people on his Cul de Sac estate, making the family one of the wealthiest landed clans in nineteenth century Sint Maarten.

The Petersen and Romney Estates - Prince's Quarter

• Claimants: Robert Petersen (Borderel 66) and Charlotte Romney (Borderel 81)

• Enslaved People Claimed: 116 (Petersen) and 106 (Romney)

• Total Compensation: ƒ 3,240 (Petersen) and ƒ 2,700 (Romney)

• Historical Context: Bordering one another in the eastern quarters, these large estates relied on substantial workforces for sugar cultivation, provisioning grounds, and livestock management.

The Percival Properties - Cole Bay and Philipsburg

• Claimant: Lucas Percival (Borderel 62)

• Enslaved People Claimed: 105 (86 verified)

• Total Compensation: ƒ 2,580

• Historical Context: The Percival estate represented the dominant agricultural and landholding presence in Cole Bay, anchoring the southwestern section of the Dutch territory.

Family Names by Total Enslaved People Claimed

• Richardson: 310 claimed (247 verified for ƒ 7,410) across 9 separate borderellen (Louisa, Jacob A., Ann Louisa, Margaret, John Edney, Richard Robinson, Eliza Jane, Ann Godet, and W.B.F. Richardson).

• Based on the historical price indices from the International Institute of Social History (IISG / IISH) and Statistics Netherlands (CBS), 1 Dutch guilder in 1864 equals roughly €12 to €15 today in standard commodity purchasing power:

  • In Euros: Range: €89,000 to €111,000

  • In US Dollars (USD): Range: $97,000 to $122,000 USD

  • In Netherlands Antillean Guilders (XCG / NAf ): Range: 174,000 to 218,000 NAf

• Tielenius Kruythoff / Rink Tielenius Kruythoff: 234 claimed (215 verified for ƒ 6,450) across 2 borderellen (Judith Rink Tielenius Kruythoff and Adolf Tielenius Kruythoff).

  • In Euros: Range: € 77,000 to € 97,000

  • In US Dollars (USD): Range: $85,000 to $106,000 USD

  • In Netherlands Antillean Guilders (XCG / NAf ): Range: 152,000 to 190,000 NAf

• Arrindell: 228 claimed (189 verified for ƒ 5,670) across 8 borderellen (Isaac P., Luke, Rebecca, John D., Benjamin Az, John Fogarty, Ann Mary, and Ann Arrindell).

  • In Euros: Range: € 68,000 to € 85,000

  • In US Dollars (USD): Range: $74,000 to $93,000 USD

  • In Netherlands Antillean Guilders (XCG / NAf ): Range: 133,000 to 167,000 NAf

• Percival: 175 claimed (138 verified for ƒ 4,140) across 7 borderellen (Abram, Ann Martha, Thomas, Lucas, Ann Mary Francis, Rebecca, and Lucas Laparelle Percival).

  • In Euros: Range: € 50,000 to € 62,000

  • In US Dollars (USD): Range: $54,000 to $68,000 USD

  • In Netherlands Antillean Guilders (XCG / NAf ): Range: 97,000 to 122,000 NAf

• van Romondt: 171 claimed (147 verified for ƒ 4,410) across 3 borderellen (A.A., Angelina, and William P.L. van Romondt).

  • In Euros: Range: € 53,000 to € 66,000

  • In US Dollars (USD): Range: $58,000 to $72,000 USD

  • In Netherlands Antillean Guilders (XCG / NAf ): Range: 104,000 to 130,000 NAf

• Nisbet: 164 claimed (151 verified for ƒ 4,530) across 2 borderellen (David and Amelia Nisbet).

  • In Euros: Range: € 54,000 to € 68,000

  • In US Dollars (USD): Range: $59,000 to $75,000 USD

  • In Netherlands Antillean Guilders (XCG / NAf ): Range: 106,000 to 134,000 NAf

• Romney: 126 claimed (101 verified for ƒ 3,030) across 4 borderellen (Aletta Louisa, Joseph, Charlotte, and Benjamin Romney).

  • In Euros: Range: € 36,000 to € 45,000

  • In US Dollars (USD): Range: $40,000 to $50,000 USD

  • In Netherlands Antillean Guilders (XCG / NAf ): Range: 71,000 to 89,000 NAf

• Petersen: 118 claimed (110 verified for ƒ 3,300) across 2 borderellen (James and Robert Petersen).

  • In Euros: Range: € 40,000 to € 50,000

  • In US Dollars (USD): Range: $43,000 to $54,000 USD

  • In Netherlands Antillean Guilders (XCG / NAf) : Range: 78,000 to 97,000 NAf

NOTE: If you busted out your calculater, you will have noticed a difference exists because nineteenth-century colonial ledgers were working administrative documents rather than balanced spreadsheets. Officials made manual adjustments across several years, adding black pencil notes during the 1863 verification and red pencil updates during the 1868 census check. The final payout total of 1,878 people (ƒ 56,340) was the legal number certified by the verification commission for treasury payout, while the intermediate tracking columns reflect rough field tallies compiled during the island-wide inspections.

This image shows an authentic, issued compensation bill of exchange from Sint Maarten, linking to Borderel No. 6 in the archival list.

Detailed Transcription & Archival Analysis

• Location & Date Issued: 

St. Martin (Ned. Ged.) den 20 October 1864 (St. Martin, Dutch Part, 20 October 1864)

• Amount: ƒ 500 (Vijfhonderd Gulden / Five Hundred Guilders)

• Amount in todays money: In Euros: Range: € 6,000 to € 7,500 In US Dollars (USD): Range: $6,500 to $8,200 USD In Caribbean Guilders (XCG / NAf): Range: 11,600 to 14,700 XCG

• Payee:

  "aan de order van L. Percival Junr. Executeur boedel Benjamin Arrindell"

  (to the order of Lucas Percival Jr., Executor of the estate of Benjamin Arrindell)

• Legal Text:

  "ingevolge adviesbrief dd. 20 October 1864 No. 5 (tegemoetkoming voor de slaven)."

  (pursuant to letter of advice dated 20 October 1864 No. 5, compensation for the slaves)

• Signatory: 

Signed twice (as issuer and registrar) by D.C. van Romondt (De Gezaghebber, a.i. / De Gezaghebber van St. Martin (Ned. Ged.)).

• Payment / Processing Stamps:

  • Blue ink stamp: Betaald (Paid).

  • Light blue endorsement stamp: Processed by the Ministry of Colonies in The Hague ('s Gravenhage), dated 3 January 1865.

  • Archival reference number: 44524.

• Claim Match: In the master dataset, Borderel No. 6 belongs to Benjamin Arrindell Az (Cole Bay), who claimed 69 enslaved people, of whom 60 were finally verified for a total compensation of ƒ 1,800.

• Tranche Payment: Large compensation payouts were typically issued in sets of smaller bills of exchange (such as ƒ 500 notes like this one) rather than a single lump sum, making them easier to trade, discount, or endorse to merchant firms.

Purchasing Power and Consumer Price Index (CPI)

Historical purchasing power calculations for the Dutch guilder from the International Institute of Social History (IISG / IISH in Amsterdam) and Statistics Netherlands (CBS) indicate:

• Guilder to Modern Euro Factor: 1 Dutch guilder in the 1860s equates to approximately € 12 to € 15 in basic consumer goods basket terms.

• Math for ƒ 500:

  • 500 × € 12 = € 6,000

  • 500 × € 15 = € 7,500

• Currency Conversions:

  • € 6,000 to € 7,500 equates to approximately $6,500 to $8,200 USD.

  • Converted to Netherlands Antillean Guilders (pegged at 1 USD = 1.79 NAf), this amounts to roughly 11,600 to 14,700 NAf (rounded accurately to ~12,000–15,000 NAf).

Income and Labor Value (Wages)

In the mid-nineteenth century (1860s Netherlands and Dutch colonies):

• Historical Daily/Annual Wage: Unskilled and agricultural day laborers earned between ƒ 0.70 and ƒ 1.00 per day, working around 250 to 300 days a year, totaling ƒ 200 to ƒ 300 per year. Skilled artisans or trade workers earned ƒ 300 to ƒ 400 per year.

• Labor Multiple: Dividing ƒ 500 by an annual wage of ƒ 250 yields 2.0 years of labor (falling squarely within the stated 1.5 to 2.5 year range).

• Modern Wage Equivalent: A full-time entry-to-median annual salary in the Netherlands or Western economies ranges between € 30,000 and € 45,000. Two years of full-time wages equals roughly € 60,000 to € 75,000+ (approx. $65,000 to $80,000+ USD).

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This 1863 pamphlet, Het Eiland St. Martin, Zijn Toestand, Uitzigten en Goed Regt (The Island of St. Martin, Its Condition, Prospects, and Just Rights) is a textbook artifact of colonial entitlement, published in The Hague by Supreme Court advocate G. Belinfante to wage an unrepentant lobbying campaign on behalf of Sint Maarten’s slaveholding elite.

Written on the exact eve of Emancipation, the document was not a defense of human freedom, but a bitter, aggressive legal grievance demanding that the Dutch treasury pay slaveowners more money for losing their human property.

Key harsh realities exposed:

• Treating Human Liberty as Property Theft: The pamphlet frames the emancipation of human beings not as a long-overdue moral correction, but as an unfair financial seizure. Belinfante argued that white planters on Sint Maarten were being shortchanged by the Dutch Crown because their compensation was set at a meager ƒ30 per enslaved person, while enslavers in Suriname received ƒ300 and those in Curaçao received ƒ200.

• Weaponizing the 1848 French Emancipation: When France abolished slavery on the northern half of the island in 1848, hundreds of enslaved people on the Dutch side courageously fled across the border to claim their freedom. Rather than acknowledging that slavery had already effectively collapsed on the island, this pamphlet indignantly demanded that Dutch taxpayers retroactively compensate the planters for every self-emancipated man, woman, and child who had escaped over the previous fifteen years.

• The Arrogance of the Opening Epigraph: The front cover prominently weaponizes a quote by colonial prosecutor A.M. de Rouville: "Either the State owes nothing... or the State owes compensation, but then it owes it for the full amount." It captures the absolute lack of moral reckoning among the colonial ruling class, who viewed abolition exclusively through the lens of contract law, profit margins, and state guaranteed bailouts.

• Zero Regard for the Formerly Enslaved: Nowhere in the rhetoric of Belinfante or his clients was there a single word of remorse, restitution, or financial provision for the 2,000+ Black individuals who had endured generations of unpaid, violent forced labor in the salt ponds and sugar fields.

The entire apparatus of high court legal talent was mobilized solely to ensure that the perpetrators of slavery, not its victims, received public funds.

More than a century and a half later, the 1863 compensation records stand as one of the most revealing historical documents of Dutch Sint Maarten. Reading through the names of the claimants, their districts, and their payouts strips away any romanticized notions of colonial benevolence, exposing instead the transactional nature of imperial emancipation. While the ledgers were created to reimburse slaveholders for lost property, their true value today lies in the quiet traces left by the 1,878 verified individuals whose labor built the island.

Confronting these archives ensures that the memory of their endurance remains central to the historical narrative of Sint Maarten, grounding modern discussions of heritage, justice, and lineage in undeniable factual evidence.